Money, in one form or another, has been used by man for centuries. At first it was mainly Gold or Silver
coins. Goods were traded against other goods or against gold. So, the price of gold became a reference
point. But as the trading of goods grew between nations, moving quantities of gold around places to
settle payments of trade became cumbersome, risky and time consuming. Therefore, a system was
sought by which the payment of trades could be settled in the seller’s local currency. But how much of
buyer’s local currency should be equal to the seller’s local currency?
The answer was simple. The strength of a country’s currency depended on the amount of gold
reserves the country maintained. So, if country A’s gold reserves are double the gold reserves of
country B, country A’s currency will be twice in value when exchanged with the currency of country
B. This became to be known as The Gold Standard. Around 1880, The Gold Standard was accepted
and used worldwide.
During the first WORLD WAR, in order to fulfill the enormous financing needs, paper money was
created in quantities that far exceeded the gold reserves. The currencies lost their standard parities
and caused a gross distortion in the country’s standing in terms of its foreign liabilities and assets.
After the end of the second WORLD WAR the western allied powers attempted to solve the problem
at the Bretton Woods Conference in New Hampshire in 1944. In the first three weeks of July 1944,
delegates from 45 nations gathered at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in
Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. The delegates met to discuss the postwar recovery of Europe
as well as a number of monetary issues, such as unstable exchange rates and protectionist trade
policies.
During the 1930s, many of the world’s major economies had unstable currency exchange rates. As
well, many nations used restrictive trade policies. In the early 1940s, the United States and Great
Britain developed proposals for the creation of new international financial institutions that would
stabilize exchange rates and boost international trade. There was also a recognized need to organize
a recovery of Europe in the hopes of avoiding the problems that arose after the First World War.
The delegates at Bretton Woods reached an agreement known as the Bretton Woods Agreement to
establish a postwar international monetary system of convertible currencies, fixed exchange rates
and free trade. To facilitate these objectives, the agreement created two international institutions:
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (the World Bank). The intention was to provide economic aid for reconstruction of
postwar Europe. An initial loan of $250 million to France in 1947 was the World Bank’s first act.
Under the Bretton Woods Exchange System, the currencies of participating nations could be
converted into the US dollar at a fixed rate, and foreign central banks could convert the US dollar
into gold at a fixed rate. In other words, the US dollar replaced the then dominant British Pound and
the parities of the world’s leading currencies were pegged against the US Dollar.
The Bretton Woods Agreement was also aimed at preventing currency competition and promoting
monetary co-operation among nations. Under the Bretton Woods system, the IMF member
countries agreed to a system of exchange rates that could be adjusted within defined parities with
the US dollar or, with the agreement of the IMF, changed to correct a fundamental disequilibrium
in the balance of payments. The per value system remained in use from 1946 until the early 1970s.
The United States, under President Nixon, retaliated in 1971 by devaluing the dollar and forcing
realignment of currencies with the dollar. The leading European economies tried to counter the US
move by aligning their currencies in narrow band and then float collectively against the US dollar.
Fortunately, this currency war did not last long and by the first half of the 1970’s leading world
economies gave up the fixed exchange rate system for good and floated their currencies in the
open market. The idea was to let the market decide the value of a given currency based on the
demand and supply of the currency and the economic health of the currency’s nation. This market
is popularly known as the International Monetary Market or IMM. This IMM is not a single
entity. It is the collection of all financial institutions that have any interest in foreign currencies, all
over the world. Banks, Brokerages, Fund Managers, Government Central Banks and sometimes
individuals, are just a few examples.
This is very much the present system of exchange of foreign currencies. Although the currency’s
value is dependent on the market forces, the central banks still try to keep their currency in a
predefined (and highly confidential) fluctuation band. They accomplish this by taking one or more
of various steps.
The International Trade Organization that had been planned in the Bretton Woods Agreement
could not be realized in the form initially envisaged - the US Congress would not endorse it.
Instead, it was created later, in 1947, in the form of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade,
which was signed by the US and 23 other countries including Canada. The GATT would later
become known as the World Trade Organization. In recent years, the two international institutions
created at Bretton Woods the World Bank and the IMF have faced a major challenge in helping
debtor nations to get back on stable financial footing.
coins. Goods were traded against other goods or against gold. So, the price of gold became a reference
point. But as the trading of goods grew between nations, moving quantities of gold around places to
settle payments of trade became cumbersome, risky and time consuming. Therefore, a system was
sought by which the payment of trades could be settled in the seller’s local currency. But how much of
buyer’s local currency should be equal to the seller’s local currency?
The answer was simple. The strength of a country’s currency depended on the amount of gold
reserves the country maintained. So, if country A’s gold reserves are double the gold reserves of
country B, country A’s currency will be twice in value when exchanged with the currency of country
B. This became to be known as The Gold Standard. Around 1880, The Gold Standard was accepted
and used worldwide.
During the first WORLD WAR, in order to fulfill the enormous financing needs, paper money was
created in quantities that far exceeded the gold reserves. The currencies lost their standard parities
and caused a gross distortion in the country’s standing in terms of its foreign liabilities and assets.
After the end of the second WORLD WAR the western allied powers attempted to solve the problem
at the Bretton Woods Conference in New Hampshire in 1944. In the first three weeks of July 1944,
delegates from 45 nations gathered at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in
Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. The delegates met to discuss the postwar recovery of Europe
as well as a number of monetary issues, such as unstable exchange rates and protectionist trade
policies.
During the 1930s, many of the world’s major economies had unstable currency exchange rates. As
well, many nations used restrictive trade policies. In the early 1940s, the United States and Great
Britain developed proposals for the creation of new international financial institutions that would
stabilize exchange rates and boost international trade. There was also a recognized need to organize
a recovery of Europe in the hopes of avoiding the problems that arose after the First World War.
The delegates at Bretton Woods reached an agreement known as the Bretton Woods Agreement to
establish a postwar international monetary system of convertible currencies, fixed exchange rates
and free trade. To facilitate these objectives, the agreement created two international institutions:
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (the World Bank). The intention was to provide economic aid for reconstruction of
postwar Europe. An initial loan of $250 million to France in 1947 was the World Bank’s first act.
Under the Bretton Woods Exchange System, the currencies of participating nations could be
converted into the US dollar at a fixed rate, and foreign central banks could convert the US dollar
into gold at a fixed rate. In other words, the US dollar replaced the then dominant British Pound and
the parities of the world’s leading currencies were pegged against the US Dollar.
The Bretton Woods Agreement was also aimed at preventing currency competition and promoting
monetary co-operation among nations. Under the Bretton Woods system, the IMF member
countries agreed to a system of exchange rates that could be adjusted within defined parities with
the US dollar or, with the agreement of the IMF, changed to correct a fundamental disequilibrium
in the balance of payments. The per value system remained in use from 1946 until the early 1970s.
The United States, under President Nixon, retaliated in 1971 by devaluing the dollar and forcing
realignment of currencies with the dollar. The leading European economies tried to counter the US
move by aligning their currencies in narrow band and then float collectively against the US dollar.
Fortunately, this currency war did not last long and by the first half of the 1970’s leading world
economies gave up the fixed exchange rate system for good and floated their currencies in the
open market. The idea was to let the market decide the value of a given currency based on the
demand and supply of the currency and the economic health of the currency’s nation. This market
is popularly known as the International Monetary Market or IMM. This IMM is not a single
entity. It is the collection of all financial institutions that have any interest in foreign currencies, all
over the world. Banks, Brokerages, Fund Managers, Government Central Banks and sometimes
individuals, are just a few examples.
This is very much the present system of exchange of foreign currencies. Although the currency’s
value is dependent on the market forces, the central banks still try to keep their currency in a
predefined (and highly confidential) fluctuation band. They accomplish this by taking one or more
of various steps.
The International Trade Organization that had been planned in the Bretton Woods Agreement
could not be realized in the form initially envisaged - the US Congress would not endorse it.
Instead, it was created later, in 1947, in the form of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade,
which was signed by the US and 23 other countries including Canada. The GATT would later
become known as the World Trade Organization. In recent years, the two international institutions
created at Bretton Woods the World Bank and the IMF have faced a major challenge in helping
debtor nations to get back on stable financial footing.
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